:titlep
:title.Shipwreck
and
Collisions at Sea
greatly prevented
by
Christophers' Patent
Improvements
in
Naval Archtecture.
With four plates.
:etitle
London:
J. Olliver, 59, Pall Mall;
P. Richardson, 23, Cornhill.
Liverpool: Deighton & Laughton.
M.DCCC.L.
:etitlep.
8vo, (4), 112 p, 4 pl
:body
<h1>Improvements in Naval Archticture, patented by John Christophers, of
Heavitree, Devon, formerly merchant and shipowner</h1>
The Invention. for which Her Majesty's Letters Patent were granted, the 12th
of October, 1849, under the title of
:lq."Improvements in Naval Architectrue,":elq.
embraces various improvments in the hull and other component parts of a ship
or vessel, when ready to proceed on a voyage.
<p>. . . 
<h1>The First Improvement
Concerns the mode of steering ships and other vessels, whether navigating salt
water or fresh, and my mode is of so opposite a character to that now in use,
that I propose to call mine by the distinctive name of the
<i>"Safety-Rudder"</i> system.
<p>. . . 
<h1>The Second Improvement
Consists in adopting improved means on board ships and other vessels, for
their better ventilation, and for diluting the bilge water, which I do in the
following manner: -
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 336]
<h1>The Third Improvement
Consists in constructing and fastening the frames of vessels in a different
manner from what is customary.
<p>In my system of framing, the timbers will not be subject to be split in
driving the bolts and tree-nails, the poulticing plan of bevelling chocks at
the butts of the timbers will be got rid of, and the frame to the end of the
ship's existence will be infinitely stronger than the usual mode of building.
<p>For vessels of about 200 tuns burthen, each of my frames, which is to be
understood embraces the frame on both sides of the vessel, will be generally
composed of five pieces of timber - namely, the floor timber, two middle
timbers, which I call middlers, being one on each side of the vessel, and two
toptimbers, being one on each side of the vessel.
<p>The heads and heels of all those five timbers are cut off square, and I
unite every heel and head together by a hard wood dowell, fixed between every
head and heel, so that the five timbers are in a continuous line with each
other, from the plankshear on one side of the vessel down to the keel, and up
to the plankshear on the other side of the vessel.
<p>Hence, there are no foothooks in those frames, and consequently there are
no foothooks by the side of either the floor timbers or top timbers.
<p>The squared heel of the top timber butts upon the squared head of the
middler, and the squared heel of the middler butts upon the squared head of
the floor timber.
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 45]
<h1>The Fourth Improvement
Consists of a new mode of fastening the beams to the sides of vessels.
<p>Figure 4 shews a drawing of an intended substitute for a lodging knee which
I call a <i>"Kneeson,"</i> and in a vessel of 200 tons burthen, this
kneeson in its flat part may be about two feet and a half long, three inches
wide, and one inch thick. In its blot part it must be sufficiently long to
extend from the hold side surface of the hereinbefore mentioned iron stringers
to the outside of the planking, where it is to be clenched upon a metal ring
or square plate. The diameter of the bolt part is one inch.
<p>When that kneeson is applied, a seven-eights of an inch hole must be bored
through the outside planking abreast of the side of the beam, and also abreast
of the opening between the two iron bars which form the iron stringer.
<p>The bolt part of the kneeson is then driven into the hole until the two
shoulders of the flat part butt hard against the iron stringers, and then the
flat part of the kneeson is bolted to the beam and my hereinafter described
clip bolts would answer the purpose -- and when that is done, the end of
the kneeson blot is strongly clenched upon a ring or plate on the outside
planking.
<p>When kneesons are above the copper line, they would be more securely bolted
to the outside plank, if the ring for clenching were placed upon the plank
without making any cavity in the plank to receive the ring. This remark may
also be applied to the bolts of any knees which are above the copper line
-- and in addition to the stronger fastening, the projecting rings
protect the plank from chafing.
<p>Frigates and line-of-battle ships, whose sides are materially weakened by
the holes for the gun-ports, would be essentially strengthened by the iron
stringers and kneesons.
<p>There may be two kneesons to every beam-end, and they will probably be
found stronger than lodging knees, because the strain upon the bolt part of
the kneeson is kept to a continually straight line from the side of the beam,
and consequently the strain is more direct than the throat bolt of any lodging
knee. [page 46]
<p>. . . 
<h1>The Fifth Improvement
Consists in making the outside planking of a vessel, from the gunwale to the
keel, in two thicknesses of plank, instead of only one thickness, and in
fastening such outside planking with my hereinafter described clip tree-nails
and clip bolts.
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 49]
<h1>The Sixth Improvement
Consists in making the ceiling of a vessel in two thicknesses of plank instead
of only one thickness, and in fastening such ceiling with my hereinafter
described clip bolts.
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 51]
<h1>The Seventh Improvement
Consists in making the upper deck of a vessel in two thicknesses of plank
instead of only one thickness, and in fastening such deck with my hereinafter
described clip bolts.
<p>In a vessel of 200 tons burthen, the under thickness of the deck should be
one inch, and the upper thickness should be two inches -- and as the
chief object of the two thicknesses is to create a stop to the caulking, the
under plank, which is slightly nailed to the beams, need not be so narrow as
is usual for the plank of the upper decks.
<p>In order not to diminish the thickness of waterways in the parts where the
scupper holes will be fixed, the waterways are not to be in two thicknesses,
but there is to be a rabbet on the inner edge, leaving only an inch thickness
on a small part of the under side of the rabbet, so as to be flush with the
under thickness of the deck, and thus create a stop for the caulking at the
waterway seam.
<p>The under planks may be placed upon the beams diagonally, but I prefer the
under plank to be placed longitudinally, because greater lengths can be
worked, and the longer the lengths of the plank, the fewer will be the butts,
and the greater the strength. The clip bolts for the deck of the above sized
vessel should be three eigths of an inch diameter, and seven and a half inches
long.
<p>Having many years ago caused several vessels to be built with the deck in
two thicknesses and fastened with jagged bolts, I make no claim for that
improvement, or for the defined dimensions -- but what I do claim is, the
combination of the two thicknesses of deck, with their fastening by my
hereinafter described clip bolts.
[page 52]
<h1>The Eighth Improvement
Consists in equipping ships and other vessels with two new sails, or what I
believe to be two new sails, one of which sails, called by me a
<i>"Courson,"</i> is a substitute for the square sail or course now bent
to or hoisted up to lower yards -- and the other sail, which I call a
<i>"Triangle,"</i> is a substitute for the trapezium-shaped sails now used
on shipboard.
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 67]
Consists in making the yard of a ship or vessel out of two small spars instead
of one large spar -- which I do by uniting the two small spars together
at their butts or largest ends, by a hollow wrought-iron cylinder and a wood
dowell fixed to the large ends of the two spars.
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 69]
<h1>The Tenth Improvement
Consists of a substitute for a ship's or vessel's dead-eyes, which I call
<i>"Live-Eyes."</i>
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 72]
<h1>The Eleventh Improvement
Consists in making the sheaves of ships' blocks in a different manner from
what is usual, by which improvement the ropes will run easier, and the blocks
will be less expensive to make -- and I accomplished it by placing a
brass or other metal tube in the centre of the sheave, and then running molten
lead, or other soft metal, into notches or groves between the tube and the
sheave, so as that when the lead cools, the tube is prevented from starting
from its position until entirely worn out.
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 74]
<h1>The Twelfth Improvement
Consists in preventing the pins of ships' blocks from splitting the shell and
from falling or working out of the pin-holes while in use on shipboard --
which I do by counter-sinking the pin-holes in the outer surfaces of the iron
strap, or of the wood shell, if there be no iron strap, and by introducing
into the pin holes a pin of such a peculiar form as, with the assistance of
molten lead or other soft metal, secures the pin to the block, until the lead
is cut out with a spike-nail, or a chisel, or other instrument. This pin,
which fits rather slackly into the pin-hole, has, nearly close to each end, a
groove turned in it all round, about a quarter of an inch wide, and about an
eighth of an inch deep -- or instead of a groove, a shoulder or a notch
may be cut into two parts of the pin, nearly close to its end.
<p>
<p>[page 75]
<h1>The Thirteenth Improvement
Consists of an improved treenail for fastening the outside and inside planks
to the timbers of ships and other vessels -- and which I call <i>"Clip
treenail."</i> 
<p>Its shape is shewn by Figure 13 -- by which it will be seen, that in
addition to an enlarged head, it has towards its end, a shoulder all round the
wood, which shoulder is form &sic. by tapering the treenail for a short
distance between the point and the head. When the treenail is driven into a
plank and timber, the shoulder prevents the treenail from starting away from
the timber, and as the enlarged head prevents the plank from starting away
from the timber, the plank becomes firmly clipped to the frame.
<p>Nothing tends more to the permanent strength and tightness of a ship than
the close adhesion of the planks to the timbers, and the fastenings ought
therefore to be of such a kind, as that neither the operation of caulking nor
the straining of the vessel shall at any time, or in any degree, force the
planks away from the timbers. The diameter of the treenail is the same near
the end as in the middle, and to insure the shoulder holding properly, it must
be turned in a lathe or other machine, and so that the shoulder shall be at a
sharp right angle with the treenail hole -- and, when driven as usual
into a smaller hole than the size of the treenail, the point of the shoulder
shall have a tendency to cut into the timber, and thus prevent the treenail
from ever starting away from the timbers.
<p>The clip treenail will probably draw the plank closer to the timbers than a
common trenail, altough the latter should go through both plank and ceiling.
<p>When the outside plank is not drawn close to the frame, the friction of the
bilge water diminishes the size of the treenails, and thus the fastening
becomes very insecure.
<p>Before driving any treenail, I recommend the hole as well as end of the
treenail to be smeared with hot vegetable tar -- or if just before
driving the treenail it were immersed in hot tallow, or hot linseed oil, the
treenails would be much more durable than at present.
[page 76]
<p>To receive the enlarged head of the treenail, the outer part of the
treenail hole in the plank may be trifingly enlarged with a cooper's
bung-borer.
<p>The rounding of the treenail head is to prevent its splitting while
driving.
<p>Regarding this improved treenail, I make no claim for either the enlarged
head or the turned shoulder separately, but what I do claim is, the above
particularly described clip treenail with the turned shoulder, combined with
the enlarged head, for fastening vessels' timbers and planks together.
<p>In driving long treenails, it has been found that they frequently split and
break, and that, to ensure their being driven, they must be of less diameter
than short treenails for the same size auger-hole. Hence long treenails
necessarily become a very bad fastening -- especially with reference to
that very important point in shipbuilding -- the drawing the plank close
home to the timbers.
[page 77]
<h1>The Fourtheenth Improvement
Consists of an improved metal bolt for fastening the deck plank, the ceiling,
and the outside planks, to the beams and timebrs of ships and other vessels
-- and which I call a <i>"Clip-bolt."</i>
<p>. . . 
[page 79]
<h1>The 15th Improvement
Consists in better securing the bolts of the shackles of chain cables, which
better security I afford by using lead for the pins of the shackles instead of
wood or iron.
<p>. . . .
<h1>The 16th Improvement
Consists of placing the hawse-holes of vessels nearly close to the stem
-- therefore, the holes may have to be cut out of the knight-heads, and
instead of the hawse-pipes being round externally, they should be square
externally, so as to get a firmer bedding upon the wood without so much
tendency to split the wood upon which they bear.
<p>Hawse-holes so placed will enable the vessel to ride at anchor more head to
wind, and prevent her shearing about to the annoyance of herself as well her
neighbours.
[page 80]
<h1>The 17th Improvement
Consists in strengthening the under part and sides of the keel, the upper part
and sides of the keelson, and the under part and foreside of the forefoot of a
vessel, and protecting them from chafing, and twisting, and breaking --
which I do by bolting to them bars of flat iron, similar to those for the
beam-stringers hereinbefore specified.
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 82]
<h1>The 18th Improvement
Consists of introducing iron pillars into the ship's hold, between the centre
lines of the keelson and the beams, so as to prevent the beams from working up
and downwise, as they are prone to do in a heavy seas when ships are deeply
laden, and thus making the beams work at their ends, where they are fastened
to the sides of the ship.
<p>. . . 
<h1>The 19th Improvement
Consists in making the pump-well of an iron hollow cylinder, with a flange at
the heel, bolting the flange with felt upon the ceiling to two floor timbers
-- this will be found desirable when it is intended to make the ceiling
perfectly tight, so as to form a second skin as tight as the outside bottom.
<p>If the ceiling of ships of war, from the keelson to the orlop-deck beams,
were made as tight as the bottom, they would be much better protected against
foundering than by the solid-floor system.
[page 83]
<h1>The 20th Imrovement
Consists in making the lower masts of large ships in two or more lengths of
wood, inserting the small end of one length into a deep square socket of
another length, and then placing a long wrought-iron cylinder over the joint
-- screw-bolting the upper and lower ends of the cylinder to the wood, to
prevent the mast from twisting.
<p>An iron cylinder placed round the hold-part of every lower-mast, would
serve the doubly useful purpose of encasing the mast without taking up much
room, and of enabling the mast to be lengthened, should the mast-head decay or
be carried away.
<h1>The 21st Improvement
Consists in forming the lower mast out of four spars pyramidically placed in
the vessel -- their bases rest in the hold on cross-steps, which extend
several feet across the keelson, and the pyramid tapers gradually to the
mast-head, where the four spars meet, and are braced together by the
trussel-trees and cap.
<p>By this plan the masts and rigging might be secured without throwing any
pressure upon the sides of a ship -- for as every one of the four spars
passes through the deck, and is fixed to a step in the lower part of the
ship's hold, their is no pressure elsewhere than upon the ship's keelson and
floors.
[page 84]
<h1>The 22nd Improvement
Consists in substituting, for a ship's futtock-shrouds, wood or iron stays,
which extend from the ends of the lower cross-trees to the upper part of the
lower mast-head -- the wood or iron stays are then ratlined, and thus the
men will reach the topsail yards, when on the cap, easier, and the lower yards
will brace up sharper, than they do now -- and as some of the after of
each gang of lower shrouds can lead to the cap, instead of all the shrouds
leading to the trussel-tree, the mast-head would be better supported than it
is now.
<h1>The 23rd Improvement
Consists of a new mode of fastening chain topsail sheets to the topsails,
which enables the sail to be attached to and detached from the sheets in a
moment, without the risk of the sheets detaching themselves.
<p>. . . 
<p>[page 85]
<h1>The 24th Improvement
Consists in securing a rim of metal to a wood sheave of a ships' block, which
I do by drilling four holes in the rim, cutting four nothches in the
wood-sheave -- placing the rim upon the sheave, and then casting molten
lead into the four holes, so as to fill up the notches and the holes.
<p>. . . 
<h1>The 25th Improvement
Consists in making a temporary rudder, which is composed of two fins, out of
some short pieces of plank placed over each other crosswise, and bolted or
nailed together. As the fins of a temporary rudder will be attached to the
sides of the vessel, one fin on each side, and as therefore they will be
nearer the surface of the water, their size must be larger than if the fins
were near the keel.
<p>In one side of each fin there are holes to reeve large rope or small chain,
which is to serve the purpose of hinges and to keep the fins in a vertical
position in the water, and they are then fastened to part of a bower cable
which is put overboard, and brought round the vessel's bottom, abreast of the
foremast and then bowsed taut. A rope-guy from the outer end of each fin leads
adt where the guy is fixed, to prevent the fin's traversing forward beyonf an
angle of about ninety degrees from the vessel's side -- and there is a
rope leading forward from the outer end of each fin to a block at the end of a
topsail-yard, temporarily fixed on the deck a short distance abaft the stem,
which latter rope leads inboard to a tackle or tiller, and thus the vessel is
steered.
[page 86]
<h1>(Conclusion)
The construction and equipment of ships throughout their multifarious
ramnifications, from the period of selecting the proper species of acorn to
that of hoisting the blue-peter -- merit deep reflection. And believing
if persons experienced in shipowning were to publickly record their
observations of existing evils, with suggestions for removing them, that
beneficial results would ensue, I make possibly be excused for availing of
this opportunity to make the following additional remarks.
<p>The expense of repairing ships is occasionally frightful; and, as it has
become an imperative duty to diminish the cause by every possible means, why
should not shipowners give their opinions in writing to the "Shipowners'
Society," and why should not that body annually publish the opinions so given?
They would be throughly analyzed -- and if discovered to be errroneously
&sic., they would be refuted &amp; ndash. and thus, in time we should arrive at
the desired truths.
<p>English, or indeed any, timber grown within forty miles of the sea-coast,
other circumstances being equal, is more durable for shipbuilding purposes
than if grown further inland -- and if felled only in the month of
January, immediately stripped of its bark -- or hewed -- and always
kept one foot or more clear of the ground, from the time of its felling to the
time of its being worked into the vessel, much less dry rot would exist.
<p>. . .